Chapter: Unit One: People or Institutions Making History
đ Vocabulary
ENGLISH FOR TODAY Classes XI-XII & Alim
â Most Important Exam Words
unforgettable - āĻ
āĻŦāĻŋāĻ¸ā§āĻŽāĻ°āĻŖā§āĻ¯āĻŧhistoric - āĻāĻ¤āĻŋāĻšāĻžāĻ¸āĻŋāĻgrief - āĻļā§āĻemancipation - āĻŽā§āĻā§āĻ¤āĻŋoppression - āĻ¨āĻŋāĻĒā§āĻĄāĻŧāĻ¨martial law - āĻ¸āĻžāĻŽāĻ°āĻŋāĻ āĻāĻāĻ¨massacre - āĻāĻŖāĻšāĻ¤ā§āĻ¯āĻždirective - āĻ¨āĻŋāĻ°ā§āĻĻā§āĻļāĻ¨āĻžmajority - āĻ¸āĻāĻā§āĻ¯āĻžāĻāĻ°āĻŋāĻˇā§āĻ āĻ¤āĻžconstitution - āĻ¸āĻāĻŦāĻŋāĻ§āĻžāĻ¨negotiate - āĻāĻ˛ā§āĻāĻ¨āĻž āĻāĻ°ā§ āĻ¸āĻŽāĻā§āĻ¤āĻžāĻ¯āĻŧ āĻĒā§āĻāĻāĻžāĻ¨ā§spontaneously - āĻ¸ā§āĻŦāĻ¤āĻāĻ¸ā§āĻĢā§āĻ°ā§āĻ¤āĻāĻžāĻŦā§apartheid - āĻŦāĻ°ā§āĻŖāĻŦā§āĻˇāĻŽā§āĻ¯āĻŽā§āĻ˛āĻ āĻļāĻžāĻ¸āĻ¨āĻŦā§āĻ¯āĻŦāĻ¸ā§āĻĨāĻžshackle - āĻļā§āĻā§āĻāĻ˛ āĻŦāĻž āĻŦāĻ¨ā§āĻ§āĻ¨icon - āĻĒā§āĻ°āĻ¤ā§āĻā§ āĻŦā§āĻ¯āĻā§āĻ¤āĻŋāĻ¤ā§āĻŦdiscrimination - āĻŦā§āĻˇāĻŽā§āĻ¯reconciliation - āĻŽā§āĻŽāĻžāĻāĻ¸āĻž āĻŦāĻž āĻĒā§āĻ¨āĻ°ā§āĻŽāĻŋāĻ˛āĻ¨dignity - āĻŽāĻ°ā§āĻ¯āĻžāĻĻāĻžresolve - āĻĻā§āĻĸāĻŧāĻ¸āĻāĻāĻ˛ā§āĻĒtestimony - āĻ¸āĻžāĻā§āĻˇā§āĻ¯ āĻŦāĻž āĻāĻ¨ā§āĻˇā§āĻ āĻžāĻ¨āĻŋāĻ āĻŦāĻŋāĻŦā§āĻ¤āĻŋcosmonaut - āĻ°ā§āĻļ āĻŽāĻšāĻžāĻāĻžāĻļāĻāĻžāĻ°ā§parachuting - āĻĒā§āĻ¯āĻžāĻ°āĻžāĻļā§āĻ āĻ¨āĻŋāĻ¯āĻŧā§ āĻāĻžāĻāĻĒ āĻĻā§āĻāĻ¯āĻŧāĻžcentrifuge - āĻā§āĻ¨ā§āĻĻā§āĻ°āĻžāĻ¤āĻŋāĻ āĻĒā§āĻ°āĻļāĻŋāĻā§āĻˇāĻŖāĻ¯āĻ¨ā§āĻ¤ā§āĻ°weightlessness - āĻāĻāĻ¨āĻšā§āĻ¨āĻ¤āĻžspacecraft - āĻŽāĻšāĻžāĻāĻžāĻļāĻ¯āĻžāĻ¨orbit - āĻāĻā§āĻˇāĻĒāĻĨā§ āĻĒā§āĻ°āĻĻāĻā§āĻˇāĻŋāĻŖ āĻāĻ°āĻžlegislature - āĻāĻāĻ¨āĻ¸āĻāĻžastronaut - āĻŽāĻšāĻžāĻāĻžāĻļāĻāĻžāĻ°ā§malfunction - āĻ¤ā§āĻ°ā§āĻāĻŋāĻĒā§āĻ°ā§āĻŖāĻāĻžāĻŦā§ āĻāĻžāĻ āĻāĻ°āĻžill-fated - āĻĻā§āĻ°ā§āĻāĻžāĻā§āĻ¯āĻāĻ¨āĻdisintegrate - āĻāĻŖā§āĻĄāĻŦāĻŋāĻāĻŖā§āĻĄ āĻšāĻ¯āĻŧā§ āĻ¯āĻžāĻāĻ¯āĻŧāĻžre-entry - āĻŦāĻžāĻ¯āĻŧā§āĻŽāĻŖā§āĻĄāĻ˛ā§ āĻĒā§āĻ¨āĻāĻĒā§āĻ°āĻŦā§āĻļmicrogravity - āĻ
āĻ¤āĻŋ āĻā§āĻˇā§āĻŖ āĻŽāĻšāĻžāĻāĻ°ā§āĻˇtrajectory - āĻāĻ¤āĻŋāĻĒāĻĨ
đ Word Formation Rules
âē unforgettable = un- + forget + -able; un- expresses negation and -able means capable of being.
âē history -> historic -> historically; -ic forms an adjective and -ally forms an adverb.
âē oppress -> oppression -> oppressive -> oppressed; -ion forms a noun and -ive forms an adjective.
âē emancipate -> emancipation -> emancipated; -ion forms the noun and -ed forms the past participle or adjective.
âē discriminate -> discrimination -> discriminatory; -ion forms a noun and -ory forms an adjective.
âē reconcile -> reconciliation -> reconciliatory; -ion forms a noun.
âē liberate -> liberation -> liberator; -ion forms an abstract noun and -or forms a person noun.
âē democracy -> democratic -> democratically; -ic forms an adjective and -ally forms an adverb.
âē astronaut -> astronautical; -ical forms an adjective related to space travel.
âē malfunction -> malfunctioning; -ing forms a present participle or gerund.
âē disintegrate -> disintegration -> disintegrated; -ion forms a noun and -ed forms an adjective.
âē weight -> weightless -> weightlessness; -less means without and -ness forms a noun.
âē legislate -> legislature -> legislative; related forms describe law-making and law-making bodies.
1. Lesson 1: The Unforgettable History - Liberation and Leadership (8 words)
unforgettable[/ËĘnfÉËÉĄetÉbl/]adjmedium
Meaning: āĻ
āĻŦāĻŋāĻ¸ā§āĻŽāĻ°āĻŖā§āĻ¯āĻŧ; āĻ¯āĻž āĻā§āĻ˛āĻž āĻ¯āĻžāĻ¯āĻŧ āĻ¨āĻž
Alt: memorable
Example: The 7 March speech is an unforgettable part of Bangladesh's history.
Syn: memorable, remarkableAnt: forgettable, ordinary
đĄ Exam tip: Use it to describe a person, event, speech, or experience that remains in memory.
historic[/hÉĒËstÉrÉĒk/]adjeasy
Meaning: āĻāĻ¤āĻŋāĻšāĻžāĻ¸āĻŋāĻ; āĻāĻ¤āĻŋāĻšāĻžāĻ¸ā§ āĻā§āĻ°ā§āĻ¤ā§āĻŦāĻĒā§āĻ°ā§āĻŖ
Alt: having great importance in history
Example: The historic speech inspired the people to fight for independence.
Syn: momentous, importantAnt: insignificant, unimportant
đĄ Exam tip: Historic means important in history; historical means related to history.
grief[/ÉĄriËf/]nounmedium
Meaning: āĻļā§āĻ; āĻāĻā§āĻ° āĻĻā§āĻāĻ
Alt: intense sorrow
Example: The leader stood before the people with a heart overflowing with grief.
Syn: sorrow, sadnessAnt: joy, happiness
đĄ Exam tip: Common collocation: deep grief, overwhelming grief, grief-stricken.
emancipation[/ÉĒËmÃĻnsÉĒËpeÉĒĘÉn/]nounhard
Meaning: āĻŽā§āĻā§āĻ¤āĻŋ; āĻĒāĻ°āĻžāĻ§ā§āĻ¨āĻ¤āĻž āĻĨā§āĻā§ āĻ¸ā§āĻŦāĻžāĻ§ā§āĻ¨āĻ¤āĻž
Alt: freedom from control or oppression
Example: The struggle for emancipation aimed to secure the people's economic and political rights.
Syn: liberation, freedomAnt: oppression, enslavement
đĄ Exam tip: Emancipate is the verb and emancipated is the adjective.
oppression[/ÉËpreĘÉn/]nounmedium
Meaning: āĻ¨āĻŋāĻĒā§āĻĄāĻŧāĻ¨; āĻ
āĻ¤ā§āĻ¯āĻžāĻāĻžāĻ°
Alt: cruel or unjust treatment
Example: The people suffered years of oppression under foreign rule.
Syn: persecution, tyrannyAnt: freedom, justice
đĄ Exam tip: Frequently used with under: live under oppression.
martial[/ËmÉËĘÉl/]adjhard
Meaning: āĻ¸āĻžāĻŽāĻ°āĻŋāĻ; āĻ¯ā§āĻĻā§āĻ§āĻ¸āĻāĻā§āĻ°āĻžāĻ¨ā§āĻ¤
Alt: related to the military or war
Example: The authorities declared martial law in the country.
Syn: military, warlikeAnt: civilian, peaceful
đĄ Exam tip: Martial law means military rule imposed during an emergency.
massacre[/ËmÃĻsÉkÉ/]nounhard
Meaning: āĻāĻŖāĻšāĻ¤ā§āĻ¯āĻž; āĻ¨āĻŋāĻ°ā§āĻŦāĻŋāĻāĻžāĻ° āĻšāĻ¤ā§āĻ¯āĻžāĻāĻžāĻŖā§āĻĄ
Alt: the killing of many people cruelly
Example: The speech described the massacre of innocent civilians.
Syn: slaughter, carnageAnt: rescue, protection
đĄ Exam tip: As a verb, massacre means to kill people in large numbers.
directive[/dÉËrektÉĒv/]nounmedium
Meaning: āĻ¨āĻŋāĻ°ā§āĻĻā§āĻļāĻ¨āĻž; āĻāĻĻā§āĻļ
Alt: an official instruction
Example: Bangabandhu gave clear directives to the people and government employees.
Syn: instruction, orderAnt: request, suggestion
đĄ Exam tip: Directive is more formal than instruction and is common in comprehension answers.
2. Lesson 1: The Unforgettable History - Politics and Struggle (8 words)
majority[/mÉËdĘÉrÉti/]nouneasy
Meaning: āĻ¸āĻāĻā§āĻ¯āĻžāĻāĻ°āĻŋāĻˇā§āĻ āĻ¤āĻž
Alt: more than half of a group
Example: The Awami League won a majority in the election.
Syn: greater number, bulkAnt: minority
đĄ Exam tip: Majority is often followed by of: the majority of voters.
constitution[/ËkÉnstÉĒËtjuËĘÉn/]nounmedium
Meaning: āĻ¸āĻāĻŦāĻŋāĻ§āĻžāĻ¨
Alt: the fundamental law of a country
Example: The elected representatives planned to draft a constitution.
Syn: charter, basic lawAnt: lawlessness
đĄ Exam tip: Draft a constitution means prepare a constitution formally.
negotiate[/nÉĒËÉĄÉĘĘieÉĒt/]verbmedium
Meaning: āĻāĻ˛ā§āĻāĻ¨āĻž āĻāĻ°ā§ āĻ¸āĻŽāĻā§āĻ¤āĻžāĻ¯āĻŧ āĻĒā§āĻāĻāĻžāĻ¨ā§
Alt: to discuss in order to reach an agreement
Example: The leaders tried to negotiate a peaceful settlement.
Syn: discuss, bargainAnt: refuse, disagree
đĄ Exam tip: Noun form: negotiation; person: negotiator.
prorogue[/prÉËrÉĘÉĄ/]verbhard
Meaning: āĻ
āĻ§āĻŋāĻŦā§āĻļāĻ¨ āĻ¸ā§āĻĨāĻāĻŋāĻ¤ āĻāĻ°āĻž
Alt: to discontinue a meeting or assembly temporarily
Example: The National Assembly was prorogued unexpectedly.
Syn: suspend, postponeAnt: convene, continue
đĄ Exam tip: Do not confuse prorogue with prolong; prorogue means suspend a session.
spontaneously[/spÉnËteÉĒniÉsli/]advmedium
Meaning: āĻ¸ā§āĻŦāĻ¤āĻāĻ¸ā§āĻĢā§āĻ°ā§āĻ¤āĻāĻžāĻŦā§
Alt: naturally and without planning
Example: The people came to the streets spontaneously.
Syn: naturally, voluntarilyAnt: deliberately, forcibly
đĄ Exam tip: Adjective: spontaneous; noun: spontaneity.
downtrodden[/ËdaĘntrÉdÉn/]adjhard
Meaning: āĻ¨āĻŋāĻĒā§āĻĄāĻŧāĻŋāĻ¤; āĻ¨āĻŋāĻ°ā§āĻ¯āĻžāĻ¤āĻŋāĻ¤
Alt: oppressed and treated badly
Example: The leader spoke for the downtrodden people of the land.
Syn: oppressed, mistreatedAnt: privileged, powerful
đĄ Exam tip: Use downtrodden before a plural noun such as people or workers.
repression[/rÉĒËpreĘÉn/]nounhard
Meaning: āĻĻāĻŽāĻ¨; āĻŽāĻ¤āĻĒā§āĻ°āĻāĻžāĻļ āĻŦāĻž āĻ
āĻ§āĻŋāĻāĻžāĻ° āĻĻāĻŽāĻ¨
Alt: the use of force to control people
Example: The movement grew because of political repression.
Syn: suppression, oppressionAnt: liberty, freedom
đĄ Exam tip: Verb: repress; adjective: repressive.
liberate[/ËlÉĒbÉreÉĒt/]verbmedium
Meaning: āĻŽā§āĻā§āĻ¤ āĻāĻ°āĻž
Alt: to set free from control or imprisonment
Example: The freedom fighters worked to liberate the country.
Syn: free, releaseAnt: enslave, imprison
đĄ Exam tip: Noun forms: liberation and liberator.
3. Lesson 2: Nelson Mandela - Equality and Reconciliation (8 words)
apartheid[/ÉËpÉËtaÉĒt/]nounhard
Meaning: āĻŦāĻ°ā§āĻŖāĻŦā§āĻˇāĻŽā§āĻ¯āĻŽā§āĻ˛āĻ āĻļāĻžāĻ¸āĻ¨āĻŦā§āĻ¯āĻŦāĻ¸ā§āĻĨāĻž
Alt: a system of racial segregation
Example: Mandela fought against apartheid in South Africa.
Syn: racial segregation, discriminationAnt: equality, integration
đĄ Exam tip: Apartheid is a system, not simply the general idea of separation.
shackle[/ËĘÃĻkÉl/]nounmedium
Meaning: āĻļā§āĻā§āĻāĻ˛; āĻŦāĻ¨ā§āĻ§āĻ¨
Alt: a restraint that limits freedom
Example: Mandela helped free South Africa from the shackles of apartheid.
Syn: chain, restraintAnt: freedom, release
đĄ Exam tip: Shackles can be literal chains or metaphorical restrictions.
icon[/ËaÉĒkÉn/]nouneasy
Meaning: āĻĒā§āĻ°āĻ¤ā§āĻā§ āĻŦā§āĻ¯āĻā§āĻ¤āĻŋāĻ¤ā§āĻŦ; āĻŽāĻšā§ āĻĒā§āĻ°āĻ¤ā§āĻ
Alt: a highly admired symbol or person
Example: Mandela became an icon of peace and justice.
Syn: symbol, idolAnt: unknown, nobody
đĄ Exam tip: In reading passages, icon usually means a famous and admired symbol.
discrimination[/dÉĒËskrÉĒmÉĒËneÉĒĘÉn/]nounmedium
Meaning: āĻŦā§āĻˇāĻŽā§āĻ¯
Alt: unfair treatment based on race, religion, or other factors
Example: Mandela opposed racial discrimination throughout his life.
Syn: prejudice, biasAnt: equality, fairness
đĄ Exam tip: Common phrase: discrimination against someone or discrimination based on race.
manifestation[/ËmÃĻnÉĒfeËsteÉĒĘÉn/]nounhard
Meaning: āĻĒā§āĻ°āĻāĻžāĻļ; āĻŦāĻšāĻŋāĻāĻĒā§āĻ°āĻāĻžāĻļ
Alt: a visible sign or expression of something
Example: Violence was a manifestation of deep political conflict.
Syn: expression, indicationAnt: concealment, suppression
đĄ Exam tip: Verb: manifest; adjective: manifest or manifesting.
reconciliation[/ËrekÉnËsÉĒliËeÉĒĘÉn/]nounhard
Meaning: āĻŽā§āĻŽāĻžāĻāĻ¸āĻž; āĻĒā§āĻ¨āĻ°ā§āĻŽāĻŋāĻ˛āĻ¨
Alt: the restoration of friendly relations
Example: Mandela promoted reconciliation instead of revenge.
Syn: harmony, settlementAnt: conflict, hostility
đĄ Exam tip: Reconcile means restore friendly relations after disagreement.
dignity[/ËdÉĒÉĄnÉti/]nounmedium
Meaning: āĻŽāĻ°ā§āĻ¯āĻžāĻĻāĻž; āĻ¸āĻŽā§āĻŽāĻžāĻ¨
Alt: the quality of being worthy of respect
Example: Mandela defended human dignity in the face of injustice.
Syn: honour, respectAnt: humiliation, disgrace
đĄ Exam tip: Useful collocations: human dignity, personal dignity, preserve dignity.
charisma[/kÉËrÉĒzmÉ/]nounhard
Meaning: āĻāĻāĻ°ā§āĻˇāĻŖā§āĻ¯āĻŧ āĻŦā§āĻ¯āĻā§āĻ¤āĻŋāĻ¤ā§āĻŦ
Alt: a powerful personal charm that attracts people
Example: Mandela's charisma helped him win international support.
Syn: charm, appealAnt: dullness, unattractiveness
đĄ Exam tip: Charismatic is the adjective form.
4. Lesson 2: Nelson Mandela - Prison, Democracy and Ideals (8 words)
resolve[/rÉĒËzÉlv/]verbmedium
Meaning: āĻĻā§āĻĸāĻŧāĻ¸āĻāĻāĻ˛ā§āĻĒ āĻĨāĻžāĻāĻž; āĻ¸āĻŽāĻžāĻ§āĻžāĻ¨ āĻāĻ°āĻž
Alt: to decide firmly or find a solution
Example: Mandela never lost his resolve to fight for emancipation.
Syn: determine, settleAnt: hesitate, waver
đĄ Exam tip: As a noun, resolve means firm determination.
revered[/rÉĒËvÉĒÉd/]adjmedium
Meaning: āĻļā§āĻ°āĻĻā§āĻ§ā§āĻ¯āĻŧ; āĻāĻā§āĻ°āĻāĻžāĻŦā§ āĻ¸āĻŽā§āĻŽāĻžāĻ¨āĻŋāĻ¤
Alt: greatly respected and admired
Example: Mandela remained one of the world's most revered public figures.
Syn: respected, honouredAnt: despised, disrespected
đĄ Exam tip: Verb: revere; noun: reverence.
imprisoned[/ÉĒmËprÉĒzÉnd/]adjeasy
Meaning: āĻāĻžāĻ°āĻžāĻŦāĻ¨ā§āĻĻāĻŋ
Alt: kept in prison or confinement
Example: Mandela was imprisoned for nearly three decades.
Syn: confined, jailedAnt: free, released
đĄ Exam tip: Use imprisoned for a period: imprisoned for 27 years.
oppressed[/ÉËprest/]adjmedium
Meaning: āĻ¨āĻŋāĻĒā§āĻĄāĻŧāĻŋāĻ¤
Alt: subjected to cruel or unjust control
Example: He spoke for millions of oppressed people.
Syn: persecuted, downtroddenAnt: liberated, privileged
đĄ Exam tip: Oppress, oppression, oppressive, and oppressed are common word-family forms.
ideal[/aÉĒËdÉĒÉl/]nouneasy
Meaning: āĻāĻĻāĻ°ā§āĻļ; āĻĒāĻ°āĻŽ āĻ˛āĻā§āĻˇā§āĻ¯
Alt: a principle or standard regarded as perfect
Example: Mandela cherished the ideal of a democratic and free society.
Syn: principle, visionAnt: reality, imperfection
đĄ Exam tip: Ideal can be a noun meaning goal or an adjective meaning perfect.
democratic[/ËdemÉËkrÃĻtÉĒk/]adjmedium
Meaning: āĻāĻŖāĻ¤āĻžāĻ¨ā§āĻ¤ā§āĻ°āĻŋāĻ
Alt: based on the participation and equality of citizens
Example: Mandela helped establish a democratic South Africa.
Syn: representative, egalitarianAnt: dictatorial, autocratic
đĄ Exam tip: Noun: democracy; adverb: democratically.
testimony[/ËtestÉĒmÉni/]nounhard
Meaning: āĻ¸āĻžāĻā§āĻˇā§āĻ¯; āĻāĻ¨ā§āĻˇā§āĻ āĻžāĻ¨āĻŋāĻ āĻŦāĻŋāĻŦā§āĻ¤āĻŋ
Alt: a formal statement given as evidence
Example: His statement at the Rivonia Trial became his political testimony.
Syn: evidence, statementAnt: silence, denial
đĄ Exam tip: Testimony is usually uncountable when it means evidence or a formal statement.
epicentre[/ËepÉĒsentÉ/]nounhard
Meaning: āĻā§āĻ¨ā§āĻĻā§āĻ°āĻŦāĻŋāĻ¨ā§āĻĻā§
Alt: the central point of an important event or activity
Example: Mandela was at the epicentre of the struggle for justice.
Syn: centre, focusAnt: periphery, margin
đĄ Exam tip: Epicentre is British spelling; epicenter is American spelling.
5. Lesson 3: Two Women - Valentina Tereshkova (8 words)
cosmonaut[/ËkÉzmÉnÉËt/]nounmedium
Meaning: āĻŽāĻšāĻžāĻāĻžāĻļāĻāĻžāĻ°ā§; āĻŦāĻŋāĻļā§āĻˇāĻ¤ āĻ°ā§āĻļ āĻŽāĻšāĻžāĻāĻžāĻļāĻāĻžāĻ°ā§
Alt: a Russian or Soviet astronaut
Example: Valentina Tereshkova became the first woman cosmonaut.
Syn: astronaut, space travellerAnt: ground worker
đĄ Exam tip: Cosmonaut generally refers to a Russian or former Soviet space traveller.
parachuting[/ËpÃĻrÉĘuËtÉĒÅ/]nounmedium
Meaning: āĻĒā§āĻ¯āĻžāĻ°āĻžāĻļā§āĻ āĻ¨āĻŋāĻ¯āĻŧā§ āĻāĻžāĻāĻĒ āĻĻā§āĻāĻ¯āĻŧāĻž
Alt: the sport of jumping from an aircraft with a parachute
Example: Her skill in parachuting led to her selection as a cosmonaut.
Syn: skydiving, jumpingAnt: landing
đĄ Exam tip: Parachute is both a noun and a verb; skydiving is a close synonym.
centrifuge[/ËsentrÉĒfjuËdĘ/]nounhard
Meaning: āĻā§āĻ¨ā§āĻĻā§āĻ°āĻžāĻ¤āĻŋāĻ āĻĒā§āĻ°āĻļāĻŋāĻā§āĻˇāĻŖāĻ¯āĻ¨ā§āĻ¤ā§āĻ°
Alt: a machine used to produce strong spinning forces
Example: The astronaut underwent centrifuge tests during her training.
Syn: spinning machine, training deviceAnt: stillness
đĄ Exam tip: Remember the spelling: centrifuge, not centrifugee.
weightlessness[/ËweÉĒtlÉsnÉs/]nounmedium
Meaning: āĻāĻāĻ¨āĻšā§āĻ¨āĻ¤āĻž
Alt: the condition of having no apparent weight in space
Example: The trainees practised moving in weightlessness.
Syn: zero gravity, microgravityAnt: gravity, heaviness
đĄ Exam tip: Weightless is the adjective and weightlessness is the noun.
spacecraft[/ËspeÉĒskrÉËft/]nouneasy
Meaning: āĻŽāĻšāĻžāĻāĻžāĻļāĻ¯āĻžāĻ¨
Alt: a vehicle designed for travel in space
Example: Tereshkova was sealed inside the Vostok 6 spacecraft.
Syn: spaceship, space vehicleAnt: terrestrial vehicle
đĄ Exam tip: Spacecraft has the same form in singular and plural.
orbit[/ËÉËbÉĒt/]verbeasy
Meaning: āĻāĻā§āĻˇāĻĒāĻĨā§ āĻĒā§āĻ°āĻĻāĻā§āĻˇāĻŋāĻŖ āĻāĻ°āĻž
Alt: to travel around a planet or other body in space
Example: Tereshkova orbited the Earth forty-eight times.
Syn: circle, revolve aroundAnt: remain stationary
đĄ Exam tip: Orbit is also a noun: the path of a spacecraft around a planet.
aerosol[/ËeÉrÉsÉl/]nounhard
Meaning: āĻŦāĻžāĻ¯āĻŧā§āĻāĻŖāĻž; āĻŦāĻžāĻ¤āĻžāĻ¸ā§ āĻāĻžāĻ¸āĻŽāĻžāĻ¨ āĻā§āĻˇā§āĻĻā§āĻ° āĻāĻŖāĻž
Alt: tiny particles or droplets suspended in air
Example: Her photographs helped scientists identify aerosol layers in the atmosphere.
Syn: airborne particles, mistAnt: solid mass
đĄ Exam tip: In science passages, aerosol usually means suspended particles in the atmosphere.
legislature[/ËledĘÉĒsleÉĒtĘÉ/]nounhard
Meaning: āĻāĻāĻ¨āĻ¸āĻāĻž
Alt: a body of elected representatives that makes laws
Example: Later, Tereshkova became a member of the Russian legislature.
Syn: parliament, law-making bodyAnt: executive
đĄ Exam tip: Legislate is the verb; legislative is the adjective.
6. Lesson 3: Two Women - Kalpana Chawla and Space Science (8 words)
aerospace[/ËeÉrÉspeÉĒs/]nounhard
Meaning: āĻŽāĻšāĻžāĻāĻžāĻļ āĻ āĻŦāĻŋāĻŽāĻžāĻ¨-āĻ¸āĻŽā§āĻĒāĻ°ā§āĻāĻŋāĻ¤ āĻŦāĻŋāĻā§āĻāĻžāĻ¨
Alt: the industry or science of aircraft and space vehicles
Example: Kalpana Chawla earned advanced degrees in aerospace engineering.
Syn: space engineering, aviation scienceAnt: terrestrial transport
đĄ Exam tip: Aerospace combines aeronautics and space science.
astronaut[/ËÃĻstrÉnÉËt/]nouneasy
Meaning: āĻŽāĻšāĻžāĻāĻžāĻļāĻāĻžāĻ°ā§
Alt: a person trained to travel in space
Example: Chawla became a NASA astronaut in 1995.
Syn: space traveller, cosmonautAnt: non-astronaut
đĄ Exam tip: Astronaut is the general term; cosmonaut is commonly used for Russian astronauts.
malfunction[/ËmÃĻlËfĘÅkĘÉn/]verbmedium
Meaning: āĻ¯āĻ¨ā§āĻ¤ā§āĻ°ā§āĻ° āĻ¤ā§āĻ°ā§āĻāĻŋāĻĒā§āĻ°ā§āĻŖāĻāĻžāĻŦā§ āĻāĻžāĻ āĻāĻ°āĻž
Alt: to fail to work properly
Example: The satellite malfunctioned during the mission.
Syn: break down, failAnt: function, operate
đĄ Exam tip: Malfunction is also a noun: a technical malfunction.
ill-fated[/ËÉĒlËfeÉĒtÉĒd/]adjmedium
Meaning: āĻĻā§āĻ°ā§āĻāĻžāĻā§āĻ¯āĻāĻ¨āĻ; āĻ
āĻŽāĻā§āĻāĻ˛āĻāĻ¨āĻ
Alt: destined to end in failure or disaster
Example: Chawla joined the ill-fated Columbia mission in 2003.
Syn: unfortunate, doomedAnt: fortunate, successful
đĄ Exam tip: Use ill-fated before events, missions, journeys, or plans.
disintegrate[/dÉĒsËÉĒntÉĒÉĄreÉĒt/]verbmedium
Meaning: āĻāĻŖā§āĻĄāĻŦāĻŋāĻāĻŖā§āĻĄ āĻšāĻ¯āĻŧā§ āĻ¯āĻžāĻāĻ¯āĻŧāĻž
Alt: to break into many small pieces
Example: The shuttle disintegrated during re-entry into the atmosphere.
Syn: break apart, collapseAnt: unite, assemble
đĄ Exam tip: Noun: disintegration; adjective: disintegrated.
re-entry[/ËriË Ëentri/]nounhard
Meaning: āĻĒā§āĻ¨āĻāĻĒā§āĻ°āĻŦā§āĻļ; āĻŽāĻšāĻžāĻāĻžāĻļāĻ¯āĻžāĻ¨ā§āĻ° āĻŦāĻžāĻ¯āĻŧā§āĻŽāĻŖā§āĻĄāĻ˛ā§ āĻĢāĻŋāĻ°ā§ āĻāĻ¸āĻž
Alt: the return of a spacecraft into the atmosphere
Example: The spacecraft became extremely hot during re-entry.
Syn: return, atmospheric returnAnt: launch, departure
đĄ Exam tip: Usually written with a hyphen: re-entry.
microgravity[/ËmaÉĒkrÉĘËÉĄrÃĻvÉti/]nounhard
Meaning: āĻ
āĻ¤āĻŋ āĻā§āĻˇā§āĻŖ āĻŽāĻšāĻžāĻāĻ°ā§āĻˇ
Alt: a condition of very weak apparent gravity
Example: The crew conducted experiments in microgravity.
Syn: weightlessness, zero gravityAnt: strong gravity
đĄ Exam tip: Micro- means very small; gravity means āĻŽāĻšāĻžāĻāĻ°ā§āĻˇ.
trajectory[/trÉËdĘektÉri/]nounhard
Meaning: āĻāĻ¤āĻŋāĻĒāĻĨ; āĻ¨āĻŋāĻ°ā§āĻĻāĻŋāĻˇā§āĻ āĻĒāĻĨā§ āĻāĻ˛āĻžāĻ° āĻ°ā§āĻāĻž
Alt: the path followed by a moving object
Example: Scientists calculated the spacecraft's trajectory carefully.
Syn: path, courseAnt: stagnation
đĄ Exam tip: Useful in science and figurative writing: the trajectory of a career.
đĄ Exam Tips
âĸ For synonym questions, read the surrounding sentence instead of relying only on the dictionary meaning.
âĸ Do not confuse historic with historical: historic means important in history, while historical means connected with history.
âĸ In comprehension answers, mention both the cause and the effect whenever the question asks why or how.
âĸ Use emancipation and liberation for freedom from oppression; use independence specifically for freedom from foreign rule.
âĸ Remember the common collocations: martial law, racial discrimination, human dignity, political emancipation, and armed resistance.
âĸ For date-based questions, connect each date with the event, person, or historical significance described in the passage.
âĸ In verb-gap exercises, identify the tense from time markers such as in 1964, in 1995, and during the mission.
âĸ In rearrangement exercises, begin with the sentence introducing the subject and use pronouns and time expressions to determine the sequence.
âĸ For comparison questions, organize the answer under similarities and dissimilarities.
âĸ Learn both literal and figurative meanings: shackles may be physical chains or political restrictions, and trajectory may describe either motion or a career.
âĸ Use precise scientific vocabulary in writing: spacecraft, orbit, weightlessness, microgravity, malfunction, and re-entry.
âĸ In paragraph writing, include birth, education, training, major achievement, difficulties, and historical importance.